@article{8756004,

title = {Mutual beta power modulation in dyadic entrainment},

author = {Mattia Rosso and Ole A. Heggli and Pieter-Jan Maes and Peter Vuust and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119326},

issn = {1053-8119},

year  = {2022},

date = {2022-01-01},

journal = {NEUROIMAGE},

volume = {257},

pages = {12},

abstract = {Across a broad spectrum of interactions, humans exhibit a prominent tendency to synchronize their movements with one another. Traditionally, this phenomenon has been explained from the perspectives of predictive coding or dynamical systems theory. While these theories diverge with respect to whether individuals hold internal models of each other, they both assume a predictive or anticipatory mechanism enabling rhythmic interactions. However, the neural bases underpinning interpersonal synchronization are still a subject under active investigation. Here we provide evidence that the brain relies on a common oscillatory mechanism to pace self-generated rhythmic movements and to track the movements produced by a partner. By performing dual-electroencephalography recordings during a joint finger-tapping task, we identified an oscillatory component in the beta range (& SIM; 20 Hz), which was significantly modulated by both self-generated and other-generated movement. In conditions where the partners perceived each other, we observed periodic fluctuations of beta power as a function of the reciprocal movement cycles. Crucially, this modulation occurred both in visually and in auditorily coupled conditions, and was accompanied by recurrent periods of dyadic synchronized behavior. Our results show that periodic beta power modulations may be a critical mechanism underlying interpersonal synchronization, possibly enabling mutual predictions between coupled individuals, leading to co-regulation of timing and overt mutual adaptation. Our findings thus provide a potential bridge between influential theories attempting to explain interpersonal coordination, and a concrete connection to its neurophysiological bases.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8725759,

title = {Modality-specific attractor dynamics in dyadic entrainment},

author = {Mattia Rosso and Pieter-Jan Maes and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-96054-8},

issn = {2045-2322},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {SCIENTIFIC REPORTS},

volume = {11},

number = {1},

pages = {13},

abstract = {Rhythmic joint coordination is ubiquitous in daily-life human activities. In order to coordinate their actions towards shared goals, individuals need to co-regulate their timing and move together at the collective level of behavior. Remarkably, basic forms of coordinated behavior tend to emerge spontaneously as long as two individuals are exposed to each other's rhythmic movements. The present study investigated the dynamics of spontaneous dyadic entrainment, and more specifically how they depend on the sensory modalities mediating informational coupling. By means of a novel interactive paradigm, we showed that dyadic entrainment systematically takes place during a minimalistic rhythmic task despite explicit instructions to ignore the partner. Crucially, the interaction was organized by clear dynamics in a modality-dependent fashion. Our results showed highly consistent coordination patterns in visually-mediated entrainment, whereas we observed more chaotic and more variable profiles in the auditorily-mediated counterpart. The proposed experimental paradigm yields empirical evidence for the overwhelming tendency of dyads to behave as coupled rhythmic units. In the context of our experimental design, it showed that coordination dynamics differ according to availability and nature of perceptual information. Interventions aimed at rehabilitating, teaching or training sensorimotor functions can be ultimately informed and optimized by such fundamental knowledge.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8715656,

title = {A methodological framework for assessing social presence in music interactions in virtual reality},

author = {Bavo Van Kerrebroeck and Giusy Caruso and Pieter-Jan Maes},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.663725},

issn = {1664-1078},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN PSYCHOLOGY},

volume = {12},

pages = {19},

abstract = {Virtual reality (VR) brings radical new possibilities to the empirical study of social music cognition and interaction. In the present article, we consider the role of VR as a research tool, based on its potential to create a sense of "social presence": the illusory feeling of being, and socially interacting, inside a virtual environment. This makes VR promising for bridging ecological validity ("research in the wild") and experimental control ("research in the lab") in empirical music research. A critical assumption however is the actual ability of VR to simulate real-life social interactions, either via human-embodied avatars or computer-controlled agents. The mediation of social musical interactions via VR is particularly challenging due to their embodied, complex, and emotionally delicate nature. In this article, we introduce a methodological framework to operationalize social presence by a combination of factors across interrelated layers, relating to the performance output, embodied co-regulation, and subjective experiences. This framework provides the basis for the proposal of a pragmatic approach to determine the level of social presence in virtual musical interactions, by comparing the outcomes across the multiple layers with the outcomes of corresponding real-life musical interactions. We applied and tested this pragmatic approach via a case-study of piano duet performances of the piece Piano Phase composed by Steve Reich. This case-study indicated that a piano duet performed in VR, in which the real-time interaction between pianists is mediated by embodied avatars, might lead to a strong feeling of social presence, as reflected in the measures of performance output, embodied co-regulation, and subjective experience. In contrast, although a piano duet in VR between an actual pianist and a computer-controlled agent led to a relatively successful performance output, it was inadequate in terms of both embodied co-regulation and subjective experience.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8711750,

title = {Livestream experiments : the role of COVID-19, agency, presence, and social context in facilitating social connectedness},

author = {Kelsey E. Onderdijk and Dana Swarbrick and Bavo Van Kerrebroeck and Maximillian Mantei and Jonna K. Vuoskoski and Pieter-Jan Maes and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.647929},

issn = {1664-1078},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN PSYCHOLOGY},

volume = {12},

pages = {25},

abstract = {Musical life became disrupted in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Many musicians and venues turned to online alternatives, such as livestreaming. In this study, three livestreamed concerts were organized to examine separate, yet interconnected concepts-agency, presence, and social context-to ascertain which components of livestreamed concerts facilitate social connectedness. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling was conducted on 83 complete responses to examine the effects of the manipulations on feelings of social connectedness with the artist and the audience. Results showed that in concert 1, where half of the participants were allowed to vote for the final song to be played, this option did not result in the experience of more agency. Instead, if their preferred song was played (regardless of voting ability) participants experienced greater connectedness to the artist. In concert 2, participants who attended the concert with virtual reality headsets experienced greater feelings of physical presence, as well as greater feelings of connectedness with the artist, than those that viewed a normal YouTube livestream. In concert 3, attendance through Zoom led to greater experience of social presence, but predicted less connectedness with the artist, compared to a normal YouTube livestream. Crucially, a greater negative impact of COVID-19 (e.g., loneliness) predicted feelings of connectedness with the artist, possibly because participants fulfilled their social needs with this parasocial interaction. Examining data from all concerts suggested that physical presence was a predictor of connectedness with both the artist and the audience, while social presence only predicted connectedness with the audience. Correlational analyses revealed that reductions in loneliness and isolation were associated with feelings of shared agency, physical and social presence, and connectedness to the audience. Overall, the findings suggest that in order to reduce feelings of loneliness and increase connectedness, concert organizers and musicians could tune elements of their livestreams to facilitate feelings of physical and social presence.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8711733,

title = {A breathing sonification system to reduce stress during the COVID-19 pandemic},

author = {Bavo Van Kerrebroeck and Pieter-Jan Maes},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.623110},

issn = {1664-1078},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN PSYCHOLOGY},

volume = {12},

pages = {9},

abstract = {Since sound and music are powerful forces and drivers of human behavior and physiology, we propose the use of sonification to activate healthy breathing patterns in participants to induce relaxation. Sonification is often used in the context of biofeedback as it can represent an informational, non-invasive and real-time stimulus to monitor, motivate or modify human behavior. The first goal of this study is the proposal and evaluation of a distance-based biofeedback system using a tempo- and phase-aligned sonification strategy to adapt breathing patterns and induce states of relaxation. A second goal is the evaluation of several sonification stimuli on 18 participants that were recruited online and of which we analyzed psychometric and behavioral data using, respectively questionnaires and respiration rate and ratio. Sonification stimuli consisted of filtered noise mimicking a breathing sound, nature environmental sounds and a musical phrase. Preliminary results indicated the nature stimulus as most pleasant and as leading to the most prominent decrease of respiration rate. The noise sonification had the most beneficial effect on respiration ratio. While further research is needed to generalize these findings, this study and its methodological underpinnings suggest the potential of the proposed biofeedback system to perform ecologically valid experiments at participants' homes during the COVID-19 pandemic.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8725762,

title = {Neural entrainment meets behavior : the stability index as a neural outcome measure of auditory-motor coupling},

author = {Mattia Rosso and Marc Leman and Lousin Moumddjian},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2021.668918},

issn = {1662-5161},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN HUMAN NEUROSCIENCE},

volume = {15},

pages = {13},

abstract = {Understanding rhythmic behavior in the context of coupled auditory and motor systems has been of interest to neurological rehabilitation, in particular, to facilitate walking. Recent work based on behavioral measures revealed an entrainment effect of auditory rhythms on motor rhythms. In this study, we propose a method to compute the neural component of such a process from an electroencephalographic (EEG) signal. A simple auditory-motor synchronization paradigm was used, where 28 healthy participants were instructed to synchronize their finger-tapping with a metronome. The computation of the neural outcome measure was carried out in two blocks. In the first block, we used Generalized Eigendecomposition (GED) to reduce the data dimensionality to the component which maximally entrained to the metronome frequency. The scalp topography pointed at brain activity over contralateral sensorimotor regions. In the second block, we computed instantaneous frequency from the analytic signal of the extracted component. This returned a time-varying measure of frequency fluctuations, whose standard deviation provided our "stability index" as a neural outcome measure of auditory-motor coupling. Finally, the proposed neural measure was validated by conducting a correlation analysis with a set of behavioral outcomes from the synchronization task: resultant vector length, relative phase angle, mean asynchrony, and tempo matching. Significant moderate negative correlations were found with the first three measures, suggesting that the stability index provided a quantifiable neural outcome measure of entrainment, with selectivity towards phase-correction mechanisms. We address further adoption of the proposed approach, especially with populations where sensorimotor abilities are compromised by an underlying pathological condition. The impact of using stability index can potentially be used as an outcome measure to assess rehabilitation protocols, and possibly provide further insight into neuropathological models of auditory-motor coupling.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8725758,

title = {Musical interaction reveals music as embodied language},

author = {Alessandro Dell'Anna and Marc Leman and Annamaria Berti},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2021.667838},

issn = {1662-453X},

year  = {2021},

date = {2021-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN NEUROSCIENCE},

volume = {15},

pages = {16},

abstract = {Life and social sciences often focus on the social nature of music (and language alike). In biology, for example, the three main evolutionary hypotheses about music (i.e., sexual selection, parent-infant bond, and group cohesion) stress its intrinsically social character (Honing et al., 2015). Neurobiology thereby has investigated the neuronal and hormonal underpinnings of musicality for more than two decades (Chanda and Levitin, 2013; Salimpoor et al., 2015; Mehr et al., 2019). In line with these approaches, the present paper aims to suggest that the proper way to capture the social interactive nature of music (and, before it, musicality), is to conceive of it as an embodied language, rooted in culturally adapted brain structures (Clarke et al., 2015; D'Ausilio et al., 2015). This proposal heeds Ian Cross' call for an investigation of music as an "interactive communicative process " rather than "a manifestation of patterns in sound " (Cross, 2014), with an emphasis on its embodied and predictive (coding) aspects (Clark, 2016; Leman, 2016; Koelsch et al., 2019). In the present paper our goal is: (i) to propose a framework of music as embodied language based on a review of the major concepts that define joint musical action, with a particular emphasis on embodied music cognition and predictive processing, along with some relevant neural underpinnings; (ii) to summarize three experiments conducted in our laboratories (and recently published), which provide evidence for, and can be interpreted according to, the new conceptual framework. In doing so, we draw on both cognitive musicology and neuroscience to outline a comprehensive framework of musical interaction, exploring several aspects of making music in dyads, from a very basic proto-musical action, like tapping, to more sophisticated contexts, like playing a jazz standard and singing a hocket melody. Our framework combines embodied and predictive features, revolving around the concept of joint agency (Pacherie, 2012; Keller et al., 2016; Bolt and Loehr, 2017). If social interaction is the "default mode " by which human brains communicate with their environment (Hari et al., 2015), music and musicality conceived of as an embodied language may arguably provide a route toward its navigation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8669036,

title = {Linking embodied coordination dynamics and subjective experiences in musical interactions : a renewed methodological paradigm},

author = {Bavo Van Kerrebroeck and Mattia Rosso and Pieter-Jan Maes},

editor = {Leonie Persyn},

issn = {0771-8640},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {DOCUMENTA},

volume = {38},

number = {1},

pages = {38--60},

address = {Ghent},

abstract = {Embodied music cognition provides a valuable and comprehensive research paradigm within systematic musicology to describe and explain musical sense-making. The basic claim underlying musical embodiment is that subjective meaning, in its broadest sense, is actively constructed within humans’ bodily interaction with music. As such, the empirical study of bodily coordination may provide insights into the subjective aspects of musical experiences. In the present paper, we advocate for a dynamical systems approach to human music interaction, focusing on the time-varying principles, and the relational aspects of the musical interaction process. We propose a model that integrates these focus points, to investigate the link between embodied coordination dynamics, subjective experience and sense-making. We then discuss possible quantitative and qualitative techniques that allow to operationalise the model into concrete empirical music research. Finally, we conclude by presenting some illustrative research cases conducted at IPEM, Ghent University institute for systematic musicology.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8665660,

title = {Timing markers of interaction quality during semi-hocket singing},

author = {Alessandro Dell'Anna and Jeska Buhmann and Joren Six and Pieter-Jan Maes and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2020.00619},

issn = {1662-453X},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {FRONTIERS IN NEUROSCIENCE},

volume = {14},

pages = {13},

abstract = {Music is believed to work as a bio-social tool enabling groups of people to establish joint action and group bonding experiences. However, little is known about the quality of the group members’ interaction needed to bring about these effects. To investigate the role of interaction quality, and its effect on joint action and bonding experience, we asked dyads (two singers) to perform music in medieval “hocket” style, in order to engage their co-regulatory activity. The music contained three relative inter-onset-interval (IOI) classes: quarter note, dotted quarter note and eight note, marking time intervals between successive onsets (generated by both singers). We hypothesized that singers co-regulated their activity by minimizing prediction errors in view of stable IOI-classes. Prediction errors were measured using a dynamic Bayesian inference approach that allows us to identify three different types of error called fluctuation (micro-timing errors measured in milliseconds), narration (omission errors or misattribution of an IOI to a wrong IOI class), and collapse errors (macro-timing errors that cause the breakdown of a performance). These three types of errors were correlated with the singers’ estimated quality of the performance and the experienced sense of joint agency. We let the singers perform either while moving or standing still, under the hypothesis that the moving condition would have reduced timing errors and increased We-agency as opposed to Shared-agency (the former portraying a condition in which the performers blend into one another, the latter portraying a joint, but distinct, control of the performance). The results show that estimated quality correlates with fluctuation and narration errors, while agency correlates (to a lesser degree) with narration errors. Somewhat unexpectedly, there was a minor effect of movement, and it was beneficial only for good performers. Joint agency resulted in a “shared,” rather than a “we,” sense of joint agency. The methodology and findings open up promising avenues for future research on social embodied music interaction.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8672353,

title = {The soundscape hackathon as a methodology to accelerate co-creation of the urban public space},

author = {Jorg De Winne and Karlo Filipan and Bart Moens and Paul Devos and Marc Leman and Dick Botteldooren and Bert De Coensel},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/app10061932},

issn = {2076-3417},

year  = {2020},

date = {2020-01-01},

journal = {APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL},

volume = {10},

number = {6},

pages = {19},

abstract = {The design of urban public spaces is typically performed by architects and urban planners, which often only focus on the visual aesthetics of the urban space. Yet, a visually pleasing public open space designed for relaxing will be underused if it sounds unpleasant. Ideally, sonic design should be integrated with visual design, a need the soundscape approach answers. The current trend of co-creating the urban space together with all stakeholders, including local residents, opens up new opportunities to account for all senses in the urban design process. Unfortunately, architects and urban planners struggle to incorporate the soundscape approach in the urban design process and to use it in the context of co-creation. In this work, a hackathon is proposed to generate creative concepts, methods and tools to co-create the urban public space. A soundscape hackathon was organized in the spring of 2019. Participants were challenged to apply their own immersive approaches or virtual and/or augmented reality solutions on selected urban soundscapes. They presented their results to colleagues in the field and to a professional jury. This paper describes the process and results of the event and shows that a hackathon is a viable approach to accelerate the co-creation of the urban public space.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8625327,

title = {The sonic instructor : a music-based biofeedback system for improving weightlifting technique},

author = {Valerio Lorenzoni and Jacob Staley and Thierry Marchant and Kelsey E. Onderdijk and Pieter-Jan Maes and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220915},

issn = {1932-6203},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {PLOS ONE},

volume = {14},

number = {8},

abstract = {In this study, we assumed that correct functional movements for weightlifting can be learned with the help of a music-based biofeedback system. We compared musical feedback with verbal feedback from experienced trainers using two independent groups. The focus was on one specific movement called deadlift. Physical parameters under considerations were the spine (i.e. loss of midline stability resulting in flexion) and the forward displacement of the barbell during the repetitions relative to the mid-foot. We recruited 31 recreational weight lifters (21-42 years of age). Results revealed that both feedback types are effective in improving the movements for deadlift. No significant differences were found across the two feedback types, neither in terms of movement, nor in terms of clarity and motivation. The results suggest that the proposed feedback system is a valid tool for technology-aided training and self-training practices.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8601417,

title = {The SoundBike : musical sonification strategies to enhance cyclists’ spontaneous synchronization to external music},

author = {Pieter-Jan Maes and Valerio Lorenzoni and Joren Six},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12193-018-0279-x},

issn = {1783-7677},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {JOURNAL ON MULTIMODAL USER INTERFACES},

volume = {13},

number = {3},

pages = {155--166},

abstract = {The spontaneous tendency of people to synchronize their movements to music is a powerful mechanism useful for the development of strategies for tempo adaptation of simple repetitive movements. In the current article, we contribute to such strategies—applied to cycling—by introducing a new strategy based on the sonification of cyclists’ motor rhythm. For that purpose, we developed the SoundBike, a stationary bike equipped with sensors that allows interactive sonification of cyclists’ motor rhythm using two distinct but compatible sonification methods. One is based on the principle of step sequencers, which 

are frequently used for electronic music production. The other is based on the Kuramoto model, allowing automatic and continuous phase alignment of beat-annotated music pieces to cyclists’ motor rhythm, i.e., pedal cadence. Apart from an in-depth presentation of the technical aspects of the SoundBike, we present an experimental study in which we investigated whether the SoundBike could enhance spontaneous synchronization of cyclists to external music. The results of this experiment suggest that sonification of cyclists’ motor rhythm may increase their tendency to synchronize to external music, and helps to keep a more stable pedal cadence, compared to the condition of having external music only (without sonification). Although the results are preliminary and should be followed-up by additional experiments to become more conclusive, SoundBike seems anyhow a promising interactive sonification device to assist motor learning and adaptation in the field of sports and motor rehabilitation.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8583093,

title = {Design and validation of an auditory biofeedback system for modification of running parameters},

author = {Valerio Lorenzoni and Pieter Van den Berghe and Pieter-Jan Maes and Tijl De Bie and Dirk De Clercq and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12193-018-0283-1},

issn = {1783-7677},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {JOURNAL ON MULTIMODAL USER INTERFACES},

volume = {13},

number = {3},

pages = {167--180},

abstract = {Real-time auditory feedback during sports activities is becoming increasingly popular in view of opportunities for monitoring and movement (re)training in ecological environments. However, the design of an effective feedback strategy is difficult. In this paper, we present a methodical approach to the design of an auditory feedback strategy for running gait modification of recreational runners, using distortion of a musical baseline. First tests were conducted to select the best performing auditory distortion signal in terms of clarity and level perception, and to derive the relative perception curve. This was found to be pink noise with an exponential response curve. Further tests were carried out to determine the just noticeable difference of this signal in actual running conditions. Finally, validation tests were performed to examine if the real-time auditory biofeedback, combined with music, could alter the runner's steps per minute (SPM) during treadmill-based running. The results show that our sonification strategy can alter the mean running SPM in a clear and non-disturbing way, and that our noise-based continuous feedback approach performs better than standard verbal instructions. Even though some of the participants did not respond effectively to the feedback, a large majority of the participants rated the feedback system as pleasant and indicated that they would use such system to improve their running style.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8514714,

title = {Exploring the effect of tempo-changes on violinists’ body movements},

author = {Esther Coorevits and Dirk Moelants and Pieter-Jan Maes and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1029864917714609},

issn = {1029-8649},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {MUSICAE SCIENTIAE},

volume = {23},

number = {1},

pages = {87--110},

abstract = {In expressive music performance, tempo is known to be a fundamental parameter. In this article, we explored effects of changes in musical tempo on performers' movement articulations. Eight duos (piano - violin) played two pieces at a predefined tempo, after which this start tempo was gradually increased and decreased. Throughout the different performances, we measured acceleration of the violinists' head and right wrist, together with the downward force applied by their body to the ground surface. We calculated periodicities in downward force using fast Fourier transform (FFT) analyses and tested whether differences occurred across different tempi. Also, we clustered acceleration and force patterns across different tempi using self-organizing maps (SOMs) and k-means clustering. The results show that a continuous change in performance tempo leads to distinct performance states with characteristic bodily behavior in terms of periodic body movement and co-articulated gestures, which supports theories of tempo-variant motor control.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}

@article{8607523,

title = {A model of different cognitive processes during spontaneous and intentional coupling to music in multiple sclerosis},

author = {Lousin Moumddjian and Bart Moens and Ellen Vanzeir and Beatrijs De Klerck and Peter Feys and Marc Leman},

url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14023},

issn = {0077-8923},

year  = {2019},

date = {2019-01-01},

journal = {ANNALS OF THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES},

volume = {1445},

number = {1},

pages = {27--38},

abstract = {Evidence for using auditory-motor coupling in neurological rehabilitation to facilitate walking is increasing. However, the distinction between spontaneous and intended coupling and its underlying mechanisms is yet to be investigated. In this study, we include 30 persons with multiple sclerosis and 30 healthy controls (HCs) in an experiment with two sessions in which participants were asked to walk to music with various tempi, matching their preferred walking cadence (PWC) up to 10% above in incremental steps of 2%. In the first session, no instructions were given to synchronize. In the second, participants were instructed to synchronize steps to the beats. Spontaneous synchronization was possible at 0% and +2% of the PWC, and fewer persons with multiple sclerosis were able to do so compared with HCs. Instruction was needed to synchronize at above +2% tempo in all participants. In the instructed session, the +6% condition marked a cutoff for cognitively impaired persons, as they were no longer able to synchronize. Based on our findings, we constructed a model illustrating that spontaneous entrainment is limited, operating during spontaneous coupling at only 0% and +2% of the PWC, and that at a higher tempo, entrainment requires intentional synchronization, with an active cognitive control mechanism.},

keywords = {},

pubstate = {published},

tppubtype = {article}

}